<\/span><\/h5>\n\n\n\nAs AI expands into the physical world, the most profound transformations are occurring in the means of production and transportation. The era of so-called \u201cphysical AI\u201d is taking shape as robots increasingly replace human labor in production, while urban air mobility (UAM), drones, and autonomous vehicles redefine mobility. At the core of this shift lies the battery \u2014 the \u201cstamina\u201d that powers robots and drones. The challenge, however, is that these emerging devices demand performance characteristics fundamentally different from those required by electric vehicles or ESS. These distinct requirements ultimately reinforce the case for the continued growth of ternary batteries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
One key factor behind the rapid rise of LFP batteries in the electric vehicle market is the adoption of Cell-to-Pack (CTP) technology. CTP refers to a design approach that eliminates the intermediate module stage by integrating cells directly into the battery pack. This architecture allows LFP batteries to compensate for their relatively lower cell-level energy density by improving efficiency at the pack level.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The feasibility of CTP largely stems from the high thermal stability of LFP chemistry. Because LFP cells carry a lower risk of explosion under overcharging or external impact, protective structures between cells can be simplified. This enables manufacturers to reduce safety components within the pack and utilize the freed space to add more cells. As a result, LFP packs using CTP technology can achieve a volumetric cell-to-pack ratio (VCTP) of around 80%.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
By contrast, ternary batteries require more complex cooling and protective structures between cells due to the risk of thermal runaway. Consequently, their pack-level space utilization typically remains around 60%. In effect, while LFP batteries have historically lagged behind ternary batteries in cell-level energy density, the adoption of CTP has allowed them to close the gap at the pack level. This shift has contributed to LFP\u2019s growing market share in the electric vehicle segment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The situation differs, however, in robotics and drone applications. Humanoid robots and drones have limited space to accommodate large battery packs, and increases in pack weight are difficult to tolerate. Both volume and weight directly affect flight capability and mobility. In these emerging markets, improvements in pack-level space efficiency through structural optimization are less important than enhancing the intrinsic energy density of individual cells. As a result, batteries for robots and drones must compete primarily at the cell level rather than the pack level.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A comparison of major battery chemistries based on cell-level gravimetric energy density (Wh\/kg) shows that ternary batteries maintain a clear advantage over LFP. On average, LFP cells deliver around 90\u2013170Wh\/kg, while ternary batteries typically reach 200\u2013300Wh\/kg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Recent announcements from Chinese manufacturers indicate that the energy density of mass-produced LFP batteries has improved to as high as 186Wh\/kg. Additionally, Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited (CATL) has set an energy density target that exceeds 200Wh\/kg through its fourth- and fifth-generation LFP products. Despite these advances, however, LFP still faces inherent limitations. Its lower average operating voltage (3.2V for LFP versus the 3.6\u20133.8V achieved by nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM)) and relatively limited theoretical capacity make it difficult to significantly narrow the cell-level energy density gap with ternary chemistries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Even if fifth-generation LFP products reach cell-level gravimetric energy densities around 210Wh\/kg, a gap of roughly 25% would remain compared to commercial nickel-cobalt-aluminum (NCA) batteries, which typically achieve around 270Wh\/kg. Moreover, if silicon anodes become widely commercialized in the future, ternary batteries \u2014 whose higher operating voltage allows for greater gains in cell-level energy density \u2014 are likely to see greater performance improvements than LFP. This dynamic could further widen the gap between the two chemistries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Of course, ternary batteries face their own challenges. As energy density increases, structural instability in the crystal lattice can emerge. However, the prospects for addressing this issue have significantly improved recently as a result of advances in single-crystal cathode technology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Most ternary cathode materials currently in use feature a polycrystalline structure. In polycrystalline cathodes, multiple small particles form a composite structure that can develop microcracks during repeated charge-discharge cycles. By contrast, single-crystal cathodes consist of a single, larger crystal structure, which reduces crack formation and enhances cycle stability. This characteristic is particularly advantageous under high-voltage and high-energy density operating conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In fact, several battery industry players, including cathode material manufacturers, have recently reported progress in commercializing single-crystal NCM materials and improving high-voltage stability. These developments are expected to further strengthen the cell-level competitiveness of ternary batteries in the future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
One such company is SK On, which announced in January that it has successfully developed a high-nickel single-crystal cathode material through joint research with Seoul National University. The material features particles approximately 10\u03bcm in size \u2014 about twice the size of conventional cathode particles. With a nickel content exceeding 94%, the material is classified as an \u201cultra-high-nickel\u201d cathode. Through particle-level single crystallization, the material is expected to improve stability while enabling longer driving ranges on a single charge in electric vehicles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Meanwhile, high power capability is another critical consideration. In batteries, \u201cpower\u201d refers to the rate at which energy can be discharged over time, and is typically expressed as the C-rate. A rate of 1C means that the battery\u2019s full capacity is discharged within one hour. When a drone takes off or a robot climbs stairs, the battery may require high-rate discharge in the range of 3\u201310C. This represents a significantly more demanding set of conditions than the 0.5\u20131C typically required while driving automobiles at steady speeds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ternary batteries offer advantages over LFP in terms of electrical conductivity and lithium-ion diffusion rates. In particular, higher nickel content tends to support stronger high-power performance. In markets such as robotics and drones \u2014 which require simultaneously high energy density and high power output \u2014 the strengths of ternary batteries are likely to become even more pronounced.<\/p>\n\n\n\n